1.以太坊
1.
以太坊技术最早起源于比特币，作为第二代可编程的区块链体系，聚集大量开发者，以太坊生态也日益扩大稳健。以太坊在2013年底首次提出，在2014年由比特币杂志联合创始人之一的Vitalik Buterin发布了以太坊的白皮书。
As a second-generation programmable block chain system that began in Bitcoin, it brings together a large number of developers, and its ecology is growing more robust. At the end of 2013, it first presented a White Paper by Vitalik Buterin, a co-founder of Bitcoin magazine, which was published in 2014.
2.以太坊基本要素
2.
以太坊要素由节点、矿工、账户、交易四部分构成。
The Tails element consists of four parts: nodes, miners, accounts, and transactions.
(1)节点：顾名思义，即构成以太坊的基本单位。以太坊中含有大量节点，通过节点可以对区块链数据进行读取和写入。根据节点参与度大小和使用情况又划分为两种：公有链和私有链。公有链类似 CPU 出厂的正式版本，用于上线最终版本的以太坊相关开发。私有链类似 CPU 的 ES 版本(Engineering Sample，即不上市仅供测试的工程样品)，用以测试即将要上线到公有链中的开发。在公有链中，每一个节点均具有同等的地位和操作权限，同时可以自由加入以太坊中进行数据读取写入。节点间依靠 POW 机制保证其数据交换的无差性和可靠性。
(1) Nodes: by definition, constitute the basic unit of the Taiku. There are a large number of nodes that can be read and written of block chain data by nodes. Depending on the size and use of the node participation, there are two different types: the public chain and the private chain. The official version of the public chain is similar to that of the CPU. The official version of the CPU is used for online final version of the Etheria-related development. The private chain is similar to the CPU version of the Es version (Engineering Sample, an engineering sample that is not market-only for testing), which is used to test the near-line development in the public chain.
(2)矿工：网络中节点用来不停进行哈希运算来满足 POW 机制规定。一个节点可以包含若干矿工，通过 CPU、GPU、专用矿机进行运算哈希数学难题碰撞得出答案，算力越大的矿工有较大几率求得难题的答案，将计算结果保存到新的区块当中并向全网广播。当结果被确认后，新生成的区块将奖励以太币(ETH)发送到矿工所属的节点账号中。
(2) Miners: The network nodes are used to continuously run Hashi calculations to meet the POW mechanism requirements. A node can include a number of miners, which can be answered by CPU, GPU, specialized miner, which calculates Hashi's mathematical difficulties, and the more powerful miners have a greater chance of finding the answers, saving the results of the calculations to the new blocks and broadcasting them to the entire network. When the results are confirmed, the newly generated blocks will be rewarded for sending Teen (ETH) to the miner's node account number.
(3)账户：以太坊账户上存在两种账户：外部账户和合约账户。外部账户通过公私钥对及进行控制，合约账户表示在区块链上指向了一个智能合约。合约账户无法主动发起交易，但是外部账户可以进行交易。
(iii) Account: There are two types of accounts in the Taiwan account: an external account and a contractual account. The external account is checked and controlled through a public-private key, and the contractual account indicates that it points to an intelligent contract on the block chain.
(4)交易：以太坊交易中，若干节点进行数字资产的转移。首先由以太坊检查交易是否有效，并计算交易所需费用设定所需的 gas 值。外部账户通过创建和签名交易进行信息的发送。因外部账户并没有代码，此时需要合约账户。在合约账户收到消息后，启动合约的代码对其内部存储进行读写，交易在以太坊上进行到其代码运行为止或 gas 消耗完毕。
(4) Transactions: A number of nodes are transferred to a digital asset in the course of a Taiwan transaction. First, an Ether check the validity of the transaction and calculate the cost of the transaction to set the required gas value. The external account is sent information by creating and signing the transaction. Since the external account does not have a code, the contract account is required at this time. After the contract account has been received, the code of the start-up contract is read and written for its internal storage, and the transaction is carried out in Ether until its code runs or gas is consumed.
3.以太坊共识机制
3. Ethno Consensus Mechanism
以太坊有四个版本，前沿、家园、大都会和宁静。从以太坊的规划来看，前三个版本使用共识机制POW，到宁静时，再转为POS。
It has four versions, frontline, home, Metropolis, and quiet. The first three versions, according to Etheria's planning, use a consensus mechanism, Pow, and then become POS when it's quiet.
(1)PoW(工作量证明)
(1) PoW (Credit of Work)
比特币采用的共识机制也是PoW，矿工通过把网络尚未记录的现有交易打包到一个区块，然后不断遍历尝试来寻找一个随机数，使得新区块和随机数的哈希值满足一定的难度条件，例如前面10位是零。
The consensus mechanism adopted by Bitcoin is also PoW, where miners try to find a random number by wrapping existing transactions not recorded in the network into one block and making new blocks and random numbers of al-Hash values meet a certain level of difficulty, such as zero in the top 10.
找到满足条件的随机数，就相当于确定了区块链最新的一个区块，也相当于获得了区块链的本轮记账权。
Finding random numbers that satisfy the conditions is equivalent to identifying the latest block in the block chain and to obtaining the right to account for the block chain for the current round.
矿工把满足挖矿难度条件的区块在网络中广播出去，全网其他节点在验证该区块满足挖矿难度条件，同时区块里的交易数据符合协议规范后，将各自把该区块链接到自己本地的区块链上，从而在全网形成对当前网络状态的共识。
The miners broadcast on the network blocks that meet the difficult conditions for mining, and the other nodes of the network develop a common understanding of the current network status by linking the blocks to their local block chains after verifying that the blocks meet the difficult conditions for mining and that the transaction data in the blocks are in conformity with the protocol.
工作量证明算法的意义在于，要找到这样一个随机数，没有比列举可能性更好的策略，而解决方案的验证又非常简单。由于输出有均匀分布(是散表功能应用的结果)，我们可以保证，平均而言，需要找到这样一个随机数的时间取决于难度阈值。这使得只通过操纵难度来控制找到新区块的时间成为可能。
The significance of workload proof algorithms is that to find such a random number, there is no better strategy than to list the possibilities, and the solution is very simple to verify. Given the even distribution of output (as a result of the scattered table application), we can ensure that, on average, the time needed to find such a random number depends on the difficulty threshold.
这种共识算法挖矿造成大量的资源浪费;挖矿的激励机制也造成矿池算力的高度集中，背离了当初去中心化设计的初衷。更大的问题是PoW机制的共识达成的周期较长，每秒最多只能做7笔交易，不适合商业应用。
This consensus-based algorithm is a waste of resources; the incentive for mining also leads to a high concentration of ponds, which deviates from the original intent of decentralizing the design. The bigger problem is that the consensus of the PoW mechanism has a longer cycle, with a maximum of seven transactions per second, and is not suitable for commercial applications.
(2)PoS权益证明
(2) PoS certificate of interest
以太坊目前处于第二阶段，也就是家园阶段，100%采用PoW挖矿。从家园到宁静，从PoW到PoS，这个过程中，以太坊通过难度炸弹的调节来避免以太坊被分成两条链，引导大家平稳过渡到PoS。关于难度炸弹的详细解释，下节课会介绍。
It is now in its second phase, the home phase, where 100% of the PoW mines are mined. From home to quiet, from PoW to PoS, in this process, the Tai Pa has been able to reconcile difficult bombs to avoid dividing them into two chains, leading people to a smooth transition to PoS.
PoS要求节点提供一定数量的代币证明来竞争区块链记账权。但是如果单纯依靠代币余额来决定记账者必然使得富有者胜出，导致记账权的中心化，降低共识的公正性，因此不同的PoS机制在权益证明的基础上，采用不同方式来增加记账权的随机性来避免中心化。
PoS requires that nodes provide a certain amount of token proof to compete for block chain accounting rights. But if simply relying on the currency balance to determine the bookkeeping, the rich must win, leading to the centralization of the bookkeeping rights and a reduction in the fairness of the consensus, the different PoS mechanisms avoid centralization by increasing the randomity of the bookkeeping rights in different ways, on the basis of proof of interest.
例如根据你持有货币的量和时间来竞争记账权，比如你持有100个币，总共持有了30天，那么，此时你的币龄就为3000，这个时候，如果你发现了一个PoS区块，你的币龄就会被清空为0。你每被清空365币龄，你将会从区块中获得0.05个币的利息(可理解为年利率5%)。比如你有365个币，如果年利率是1%，那每天你得到的利息就是0.001个币。
For example, the amount of money you hold and the amount of time you have to compete for the right to account, such as 100 coins, for a total of 30 days, at which point your currency will be 3000, and if you find a PoS block, your currency will be emptied to zero. For every 365 dollar you are emptied, you will receive an interest rate of 0.05 (an annual interest rate of 5 per cent). For example, you have 365 coins, and if the annual interest rate is 1 per cent, you will receive an interest rate of 0.001 per day.
以太坊计划采用基于保证金的经济激励共识协议,我们称它为Casper。协议中的节点，作为“锁定保证金的验证人(bonded validators)”，必须先缴纳保证金才可以参与出块和共识。Casper共识协议通过对这些保证金的直接控制来约束验证人的行为。具体来说就是，如果一个验证人作出了任何Casper认为“无效”的事情，他的保证金将被罚没，出块和参与共识的权利也会被取消。保证金的引入解决了'nothing at stake'，也就是经典POS协议中做坏事代价很低的问题。现在有了代价，而且被客观证明做错事的验证人将会付出这个代价。
The Taipan plans to adopt a consensus agreement on economic incentives based on bonds, which we call Casper. The node in the agreement, as the “bonded bond certifiers”, must first be paid in order to be involved in building blocks and consensus. The Casper consensus agreement regulates the conduct of the certifiers by exercising direct control over these bonds. Specifically, if a certifier does anything that Casper considers to be “unable,” his bond will be forfeited, and the right to a consensus will be extinguished. The bond is introduced to solve the problem of #39; nothing at stake#39; that is, the low cost of doing bad things in classic POS agreements. Now there is a price, and the certifier, who is objectively proven to be wrong, will pay that price.
以太坊PoS的共识机制还在商讨中，所以到宁静阶段，PoS的具体细节可能才能完全敲定。
The consensus mechanism in EthioPos is still under discussion, so that the details of Pos may not be fully finalized until the quiet phase.
4.以太坊为什么需要共识机制?
分布式系统中，多个主机通过异步通信方式组成网络集群。在这样的一个异步系统中，需要主机之间进行状态复制，以保证每个主机达成一致的状态共识。在运行过程中，可能出现主机故障，导致无法通信，也有可能主机性能下降，网络拥塞，这些都可能导致错误信息在系统内传播。因此需要在不可靠的异步网络中定义容错协议，以确保各主机达成安全可靠的状态共识。
In a distributed system, multiple hosts form a network cluster through asynchronous communication. In such an asterisk system, a state-to-state replication is required to ensure that each host agrees on a state-to-status consensus. In the course of operations, there may be a failure of the mainframe, resulting in a loss of communication, a risk of a loss of mainframe performance, and network congestion, all of which may lead to the dissemination of erroneous information within the system.
以太坊，一个基于去中心化的分布式账本，也需要解决在不可靠的网络中如何保障账本数据一致性和正确性的问题，这就是共识机制。
Etheria, a decentralised distributed book, also needs to address the issue of how to guarantee consistency and correctness of book data in unreliable networks, which is a consensus mechanism.
以上梳理了以太坊的起源、基本要素及共识机制，希望对你有所帮助，如果你想了解更多相关内容，敬请关注三个皮匠报告的行业知识栏目。
The above sums up the origins, essentials and consensus mechanisms of the Taiqing and, if you wish to learn more about them, please pay attention to strang>, the reports of the three leathersmiths 区块链行业以太坊生态之Layer2：技术融合应用为王-220907(25页).pdf
区块链行业：大转换以太坊合并从显卡跌价说起-220525(32页).pdf
区块链行业以太坊Layer2：区块链应用的钥匙元宇宙创新之基石-211104(15页).pdf
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